Methods for regulating free fatty acid flux using fat specific protein 27 (fsp27) compositions

ABSTRACT

Methods and FSP27 compositions for treating and/or preventing metabolic disease and conditions associated insulin resistance, obesity, inflammation and dyslipidemia are described.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of United StatesApplication Ser. No. 16/620,661 filed Dec. 9, 2019, now U.S. Pat. No.11,433,117 issued Sep. 6, 2022, which is a national stage applicationfiled under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of international applicationPCT/US2018/37443, filed under the authority of the Patent CooperationTreaty on Jun. 14, 2018, which claims the priority to United StatesProvisional Application Ser. No. 62/520,015 filed Jun. 15, 2017, theentire disclosures of which are expressly incorporated herein byreference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under RO1DK101711awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certainrights in this invention.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has beensubmitted electronically in +XML format and is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety. Said XML copy, created on Oct. 25, 2022, isnamed 63658-US-PCD_OU-17021-DIV_SL.xml and is 8,688 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Obesity has emerged as a major public health problem with currently 69%of the U.S. population and over 2 billion people worldwide characterizedas overweight or obese.

The American Medical Association recently formally labeled obesity as amajor disease highlighting its critical negative impact on publichealth. Although much work has centered on obesity prevention, thisapproach may have come too late, as we are already facing millions ofobese adults at high risk for diabetes and other obesity relatedco-morbidities. The number of extremely obese Americans, in particular,is growing at record pace with no signs of slowing.

Obesity is associated with ectopic fat accumulation, lipotoxicity,adipose tissue dysfunction, and inflammation, which together have beenimplicated in mechanisms of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Itis well established that in obesity there is impaired fat storage andbreakdown, which leads to increased circulatory free fatty acids (FFAs;also referred to as unesterified fatty acids). High levels ofcirculating FFAs are a major risk factor for the lipotoxicity. Ectopicdeposition of these FFAs impair insulin signaling in various tissues andorgans like liver, muscle and pancreas with the onset of insulinresistance in patients with type 2 diabetes and/or obesity.

Fat specific protein 27 (FSP27) also known as CIDEC (Cell Death InducingDFFA like Effector C) has recently been identified as being associatedwith lipid droplets in adipocytes. It is an intracellular protein thathas also been shown to be expressed in muscle and liver tissue. FSP27 isstrikingly up-regulated during adipogenesis and is highly expressed inadipose tissue. FSP27 depletion in adipocytes causes increasedlipolysis, resulting in breakdown of triglycerides into free fattyacids. FSP27 expression in omental fat positively correlates withinsulin sensitivity in obese humans. Also, a homozygous nonsensemutation, FSP27 E186X, in a human subject has been shown to beassociated with a phenotype of partial lipodystrophy and insulinresistant diabetes.

There is no admission that the background art disclosed in this sectionlegally constitutes prior art.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first broad aspect, described herein are uses of FSP27compositions. It is now described herein that the exogenous delivery ofFSP27 peptides are able to rescue FSP27 dysfunction.

In another broad aspect, described herein are methods of treatment whereadministering exogenous recombinant FSP27 (rFSP27) as a therapeuticimproves insulin signaling in adipocytes and adipose tissue of humans,resulting in decreased insulin resistance.

Such uses include, but are not limited to, increasing levels of FSP27 ina subject by administering exogenous recombinant FSP27 (rFSP27), wherethe subject is suffering from a metabolic disease and/or other diseasesassociated with increased free fatty acids and/or lipotoxicity, andconditions associated with these diseases.

In certain embodiments, the metabolic disease and conditions associatedwith the disease are one or more of insulin resistance, obesity, anddyslipidemia.

In certain embodiments, the other diseases associated with increasedfree fatty acids and/or lipotoxicity and conditions associated withthese diseases are one or more of Type 2 diabetes, fatty liver disease,hypothyroidism, gout, hernia, Pickwickian syndrome, lymph edema,cellulitis, depression, polycystic ovary syndrome, urinary incontinence,chronic renal failure, and erectile dysfunction.

Another use of FSP27 compositions is for reducing visceral obesity,insulin resistance and improving blood glucose levels by administeringan effective amount of rFSP27 to improve insulin induced signaling incells or whole body in a subject in need thereof.

Another use of FSP27 compositions is for modulating lipolysis inadipocytes, by administering rFSP27 to a subject in an amount sufficientto protect that subject from insulin resistance.

Another use of FSP27 compositions is for regulating lipid dropletmorphology and optimizing storage and breakdown of fat (lipolysis) in asubject, by administering an effective amount of rFSP27 to a subject inneed thereof.

Another use of FSP27 compositions is method for decreasing adiposetissue glycerol lipase (ATGL) expression and lipolysis in a subject inneed thereof, by administering an effective amount of rFSP27 .

Another use of FSP27 compositions is for protecting adipocyte cellsagainst FFA-induced insulin resistance, by administering an effectiveamount of rFSP27 to a subject in need thereof.

Another use of FSP27 compositions is for treating pathologies associatedwith insulin-resistance syndrome, by the administration of an efficientamount of a FSP27 composition to a subject in need thereof. Suchpathologies can include, for example, for the treatment of Type 2diabetes in a subject.

In another broad aspect, described herein are pharmaceuticalcompositions comprising one or more FSP27 medicaments. FSP27 medicamentsmay be administered as a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, or as apegylated composition, or be modified in a pharmaceutically acceptablemanner so as to improve the therapeutic properties. FSP27 medicamentsmay also be administered optionally together with one or more inertcarriers and/or diluents. The FSP27 medicament is present in an amountsufficient to treat one or more of: diabetes mellitus, impaired glucosetolerance, hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphatedehydrogenase deficiency, hyperinsulinism/hyperinsulinemia, impairedinsulin production, impaired insulin sensitivity, metabolic syndrome,insulin resistance syndrome, obesity, lipidoses, dyslipidemia, fattyliver, lipodystrophy, inflammation and/or other disorders whereadministration of FSP27 would be efficacious.

In another broad aspect described herein is a method of treating asubject, the method comprising: administering a composition comprising anucleic acid encoding a FSP27 protein to a subject; and expressing theFSP27 peptide; wherein, the FSP27 protein has an amino acid sequencehaving greater than about 85% homology to at least one of the FSP27sequences shown in FIG. 13 ; the FPS27 protein promoting modulation oflipolysis in adipocytes; and, the subject has a metabolic diseaseassociated with increased free fatty acids and/or lipotoxicity.

In certain embodiments, the FSP27 protein has an amino acid sequencehaving greater than about 90% homology to the FSP27 sequences.

In certain embodiments, the FSP27 protein has an amino acid sequencehaving greater than about 95% homology to the FSP27 sequences.

In certain embodiments, the FSP27 protein has an amino acid sequencehaving greater than about 99% homology to the FSP27 sequences.

In certain embodiments, the FSP27 protein is naturally occurring.

In certain embodiments, the FSP27 protein is a recombinant protein.

In certain embodiments, the FSP27 protein comprises a core FSP27 domainthat is associated with TG accumulation, such as aa 120-220.

In certain embodiments, the subject is a human.

In certain embodiments, the subject experiences reduced insulinresistance, obesity and/or dyslipidemia administration of thecomposition.

In certain embodiments, the nucleic acid encoding the FSP27 protein isoperably linked to a constitutive promoter/enhancer, anadipocyte-specific promoter/enhancer, or an inducible promoter/enhancer.

In certain embodiments, the composition comprises a plasmid, the plasmidcomprising the nucleic acid encoding the FSP27 protein operably linkedto a transcriptional regulatory sequence (promoter/enhancer).

In certain embodiments, the composition comprises a viral vector, theviral vector comprising the nucleic acid encoding the FSP27 proteinoperably linked to a promoter.

In another broad aspect, described herein is a transgenic mouseexpressing human FSP27 in adipose and/or other tissues.

Various objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent tothose skilled in the art from the following detailed description of thepreferred embodiment, when read in light of the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The patent or application file may contain one or more drawings executedin color and/or one or more photographs. Copies of this patent or patentapplication publication with color drawing(s) and/or photograph(s) willbe provided by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office upon request andpayment of the necessary fees.

FIGS. 1A-1D: Schematic illustration of a model of FSP27 regulation oflipolysis. A model of FSP27 regulation of lipolysis that is supported bythe results described herein. PLIN1 scaffolds FSP27 at the lipid dropletsurface where FSP27 interacts with ATGL and decreases lipolysis:

FIG. 1A. In basal conditions, FSP27 decreases the access of ATGL to itscoactivator CGI-58, thereby diminishing lipolysis, as indicated by thedashed downward arrow.

FIG. 1B. When FSP27 is absent in basal conditions, ATGL is free tointeract with CGI-58, leading to increased lipolysis, as indicated bysolid downward arrow.

FIG. 1C. Upon β-adrenergic stimulation in the presence of FSP27, PKAactivation results in phosphorylation of PLIN1 and HSL, causing releaseof CGI-58 which binds to and stimulates ATGL. Unbound ATGL istranslocated to lipid droplet and G0S2 is downregulated to increaseATGL-mediated lipolysis as indicated by the bolded downward arrow.

FIG. 1D. Upon β-adrenergic stimulation in the absence of FSP27, theotherwise FSP27-sequestered-ATGL is now available for CGI-58 binding,resulting in even higher levels of lipolysis, indicated by the moreprominent downward arrow.

FIGS. 2A-2C: FSP27 depletion increased both basal and stimulatedlipolysis in human adipocytes:

FIG. 2A. Relative mRNA levels in siRNA-transfected human adipocytes.

FIG. 2B. Immunoblot and quantification of protein expression levels ofFSP27 and β-tubulin (loading control) of siRNA-transfected humanadipocytes.

FIG. 2C. Biochemical quantification of basal and stimulated lipolysisbased on measurement of glycerol release after 2 hours.

FIG. 3 : FSP27 expression decreased ATGL-mediated lipolysis.

FIGS. 4A-4B: FSP27 negatively regulates ATGL expression and lipolysis inhuman adipocytes:

FIG. 4A. RNA was extracted from control and siRNA-treated adipocytes,and mRNA levels were measured by quantiative PCR and normalized by GAPDHmRNA.

FIG. 4B. Protein lysates from control and siRNA-treated adipocytes wereloaded at 15 µg/lane and probed with antibodies against FSP27, ATGL orβ-tubulin.

FIGS. 5A-5G: FSP27 inhibits ATGL promoter activity via Egr1:

FIGS. 5A, 5B, 5D, 5F, and 5G. HEK293T cells cultured in 12-well disheswere transfected with the full length (-2979/+21), C→T mutated, ortruncated ATGL luciferase promoter constructs, cDNA for eGFP; cDNAs forFSP27 and Egr1 as well as scrambled siRNA and Egr1 siRNA as indicated.

FIG. 5C. Schematic representation of the proximal region of ATGLpromoter with the consensus Egr1 binding site. [SEQ ID NO:1].

FIG. 5D. Indicates the synergistic effect between Egr1 and FSP27 withp<0.05.

FIG. 5E. HEK293T cells growing in 35 mm dishes were transfected withscrambled or Egr1 siRNA.

FIGS. 6A-6D: FSP27 protected human adipocytes against FFA-inducedinsulin resistance:

FIG. 6A: Insulin stimulated AKT phosphorylation in human adipocytesafter siRNA-mediated FSP27 knockdown.

FIG. 6B. Insulin stimulated AKT phosphorylation in human adipocytes inthe presence or absence of FSP27-CFP or EGFP (Control).

FIG. 6C. FSP27-HA expression protects adipocytes.

FIG. 6D. 100 µM PA/BSA or FSP27-HA expression had no effect on insulinstimulated AKT activation in adipocytes differentiated from ATGL-KOMEFs.

FIG. 7 : Basal lipolysis was significantly higher in visceral depotscompared to subcutaneous. Glycerol release was measured in 12subcutaneous, 15 omentum adipose depots and normalized to total µg ofprotein. Data are presented as ± SEM.

FIGS. 8A-8B: Increased lipolysis in visceral adipose negativelycorrelates with FSP27 expression:

FIG. 8A. Basal FSP27 was significantly higher in subcutaneous depot.

FIG. 8B. Basal FSP27 protein was measured in 13 paired subcutaneous, andomentum depots.

FIGS. 9A-9B: siRNA-mediated FSP27 knockdown increases lipolysis andimpairs insulin signaling:

FIG. 9A. Knockdown of FSP27 in subcutaneous adipose tissue increasedrate of glycerol release in the media.

FIG. 9B. siRNA-mediated FSP27 depletion decreased Akt phosphorylation.

FIGS. 10A-10B: Recombinant FSP27 improves insulin signaling in visceraladipose:

FIG. 10A. Treatment of visceral depot with recombinant FSP27 decreasedbasal lipolysis.

FIG. 10B. Quantification of insulin-stimulated AKT phosphorylation.

FIG. 11 : FSP27 (120-220) protected against FFA-induced insulinresistance in human primary adipocytes.

FIG. 12 : Schematic representation of FSP27 and its functional domains:CIDE-N and CIDE-C.

FIG. 13 : FSP27 sequence is conserved in vertebrates; for example, > 90%conserved sequence in FSP27 in humans, mouse, monkey, dog, cow and frog.FIG. 13 discloses SEQ ID NOs: 2-7, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 14A: Insulin tolerance test (ITT) in AT-hFSP27tg mice.

FIG. 14B: Glucose tolerance test (GTT) in AT-hFSP27tg mice.

FIG. 15A: Glucose tolerance test (GTT) in FSP27^(-/-) mice.

FIG. 15B: Insulin tolerance test (ITT) in FSP27^(-/-) mice.

FIG. 16A: Fasting blood insulin in FSP27 knockout mice.

FIG. 16B: Non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) (Free fatty acids) in FSP27knockout mice.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT(S)

Throughout this disclosure, various publications, patents and publishedpatent specifications are referenced by an identifying citation. Thedisclosures of these publications, patents and published patentspecifications are hereby incorporated by reference into the presentdisclosure to more fully describe the state of the art to which thisinvention pertains.

Definitions

In order to facilitate review of the various embodiments of thedisclosure, the following explanations of specific terms are provided:

FSP27 Compositions/Medicaments: Refers to the FSP27 as shown in theschematic representation of FSP27 and its functional domains in FIG. 12, including any substitutions, deletions, modifications, or mutationsthereof. FSP27 Compositions/Medicaments as contemplated herein may alsobe prepared as recombinant proteins, including the FSP27 sequences shownin FIG. 13 .

The FSP27 protein may also be encoded by nucleic acids. As used herein,a “nucleic acid” or “polynucleotide” includes a nucleic acid, anoligonucleotide, a nucleotide, a polynucleotide, and any fragment orvariant thereof. The nucleic acid or polynucleotide may bedouble-stranded, single-stranded, or triple-stranded DNA or RNA(including cDNA), or a DNA-RNA hybrid of genetic or synthetic origin,wherein the nucleic acid contains any combination ofdeoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides and any combination of bases,including, but not limited to, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine,uracil, inosine, and xanthine hypoxanthine. The nucleic acid orpolynucleotide may be combined with a carbohydrate, lipid, protein, orother materials. Preferably, the nucleic acid encodes FSP27 protein.

The “complement” of a nucleic acid refers, herein, to a nucleic acidmolecule which is completely complementary to another nucleic acid, orwhich will hybridize to the other nucleic acid under conditions of highstringency. High-stringency conditions are known in the art (see e.g.,Maniatis et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed. (ColdSpring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1989) and Ausubel et al.,eds., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (New York, N.Y.: John Wiley& Sons, Inc., 2001)). Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent, andmay vary depending upon the circumstances. As used herein, the term“cDNA” refers to an isolated DNA polynucleotide or nucleic acidmolecule, or any fragment, derivative, or complement thereof. It may bedouble-stranded, single-stranded, it may have originated recombinantlyor synthetically, and it may represent coding and/or noncoding 5' and/or3' sequences.

In addition, “complementary” means not only those that are completelycomplementary to a region of at least 20 continuous nucleotides , butalso those that have a nucleotide sequence homology of at least 40% incertain instances, 50% in certain instances, 60% in certain instances,70% in certain instances, at least 80%, 90%, and 95% or higher. Thedegree of homology between nucleotide sequences can be determined by analgorithm, BLAST, etc.

As used herein nucleic acids and/or nucleic acid sequences are“homologous” when they are derived, naturally or artificially, from acommon ancestral nucleic acid or nucleic acid sequence. Homology isgenerally inferred from sequence identity between two or more nucleicacids or proteins (or sequences thereof). The precise percentage ofidentity between sequences that is useful in establishing homologyvaries with the nucleic acid and protein at issue. Higher levels ofsequence identity, e.g., 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%,97%, 98%, or 99% or more can also be used to establish homology. Methodsfor determining sequence similarity percentages (e.g., BLASTN usingdefault parameters) are generally available. Software for performingBLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center forBiotechnology Information.

The nucleic acid agent, for example, may be a plasmid. Such a plasmidmay comprise a nucleic acid sequence encoding FSP27 or anotherFSP27-associated protein, although it is to be understood that othertypes of nucleic acid agents, such as recombinant viral vectors, mayalso be used for the purposes of the present invention. In oneembodiment of the present invention, the nucleic acid (e.g., plasmid)encodes at least one FSP27-associated protein.

The term “plasmid”, as used herein, refers generally to circulardouble-stranded DNA, which is not bound to a chromosome. The DNA, forexample, may be a chromosomal or episomal-derived plasmid. The plasmidof the present invention may optionally contain a promoter /enhancer andterminator of transcription, and/or a discrete series ofrestriction-endonuclease recognition sites, located between the promoterand the terminator. In the plasmid, a polynucleotide insert of interest(e.g., one encoding a FSP27-associated protein) should be operativelylinked to an appropriate promoter. The promoter may be its nativepromoter or a host-derived promoter. The promoter may also be atissue-specific promoter, such as an adipocyte-specific promoter orother tissue-specific promoter. The promoter may further be aregulatable promoter, which may be turned off when the expression of thegene is no longer desired. Non-limiting examples of promoters for use inthe present invention include the actin or albumin promoter and viralpromoters. Other suitable promoters will be known to the skilledartisan.

Therapeutic: A generic term that includes both diagnosis and treatment.It will be appreciated that in these methods the “therapy” may be anytherapy for treating a disease including, but not limited to,pharmaceutical compositions, gene therapy and biologic therapy such asthe administering of antibodies and chemokines. Thus, the methodsdescribed herein may be used to evaluate a patient or subject before,during and after therapy, for example, to evaluate the reduction indisease state.

Adjunctive therapy: A treatment used in combination with a primarytreatment to improve the effects of the primary treatment.

Clinical outcome: Refers to the health status of a patient followingtreatment for a disease or disorder or in the absence of treatment.Clinical outcomes include, but are not limited to, an increase in thelength of time until death, a decrease in the length of time untildeath, an increase in the chance of survival, an increase in the risk ofdeath, survival, disease-free survival, chronic disease, metastasis,advanced or aggressive disease, disease recurrence, death, and favorableor poor response to therapy.

Decrease in survival: As used herein, “decrease in survival” refers to adecrease in the length of time before death of a patient, or an increasein the risk of death for the patient.

Patient: As used herein, the term “patient” includes human and non-humananimals. The preferred patient for treatment is a human. “Patient,”“individual” and “subject” are used interchangeably herein.

Preventing, treating or ameliorating a disease: “Preventing” a diseaserefers to inhibiting the full development of a disease. “Treating”refers to a therapeutic intervention that ameliorates a sign or symptomof a disease or pathological condition after it has begun to develop orstops the progression of said disease. “Ameliorating” refers to thereduction in the number or severity of signs or symptoms of a disease.

Poor prognosis: Generally refers to a decrease in survival, or in otherwords, an increase in risk of death or a decrease in the time untildeath. Poor prognosis can also refer to an increase in severity of thedisease, such as an increase in spread (metastasis) of the cancer toother tissues and/or organs.

Screening: As used herein, “screening” refers to the process used toevaluate and identify candidate agents that affect such disease.

Comprising, comprises and comprised of: As used herein are synonymouswith “including”, “includes” or “containing”, “contains”, and areinclusive or open-ended and do not exclude additional, non-recitedmembers, elements or method steps. The terms “comprising”, “comprises”and “comprised of” also include the term “consisting of”.

About: As used herein when referring to a measurable value such as aparameter, an amount, a temporal duration, and the like, is meant toencompass variations of +/-10% or less, preferably +/-5% or less, morepreferably +/-1% or less, and still more preferably +/-0.1% or less ofand from the specified value, insofar such variations are appropriate toperform in the disclosed invention. It is to be understood that thevalue to which the modifier “about” refers is itself also specifically,and preferably, disclosed.

And/or: When used in a list of two or more items, means that any one ofthe listed items can be employed by itself or any combination of two ormore of the listed items can be employed. For example, if a list isdescribed as comprising group A, B, and/or C, the list can comprise Aalone; B alone; C alone; A and B in combination; A and C in combination,B and C in combination; or A, B, and C in combination.

Metabolic diseases: As used herein means any disease caused by anabnormal metabolic process that may be congenital, resulting from aninherited abnormality, or acquired, resulting from organ or systemdysfunction or failure.

General Description

Lipotoxicity due to excess adipose tissue lipolysis contributes toinsulin-resistance. Fat Specific Protein (FSP27) is a key regulator oflipolysis in adipocytes. Lipotoxicity can exist in muscle, liver,pancreas and other organs. FIG. 12 provides a schematic representationof FSP27 and its functional domains.

FSP27 is a lipid droplet associated protein that regulates fatty acidhomeostasis in adipocytes, and its expression is inversely associatedwith insulin sensitivity in obese humans. Human genetic FSP27 mutationsare associated with lipodystrophy, hypertriglyceridemia, andinsulin-resistance and inactivating mutations of FSP27 in humans leadsto increased lipolysis. In addition, adipose-specific disruption ofFSP27 causes insulin resistance in high fat fed mice.

Lipolysis in the Pathogenesis of Insulin Resistance

Lipolysis is a catabolic branch of the fatty acid (FA) cycle thatprovides FAs in times of metabolic need. FAs are essential substratesfor energy production and the synthesis of most lipids. Despite theirfundamental physiological importance, an oversupply of FAs is highlydetrimental. Increased free fatty acids (FFAs) cause lipotoxicity whichdisrupt the integrity of membranes, alters cellular acid-basehomeostasis, and elicits the generation of harmful bioactive lipids.These effects, in turn, impair membrane function and induce endoplasmicreticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, celldeath, and insulin resistance. Adipose tissue regulates the balance ofFA esterification and triglyceride (TG) lipolysis, thus playing acentral role in regulating whole body metabolism and glucosehomeostasis. High concentrations of circulating FFAs and TG, observed inboth obesity and lipodystrophy, are believed to cause insulin resistanceand decreased glucose tolerance.

FSP27 Regulates Lipid Droplet Morphology and Lipolysis

The FSP27 protein associates with lipid droplets and regulates FAhomeostasis in adipocytes. FSP27 regulates lipid droplet dynamics andlipolysis in adipocytes through regulation of the catalytic capacity aswell as transcription of adipose tissue glycerol lipase, ATGL, therate-limiting enzyme in lipolysis. FSP27 levels are inversely associatedwith insulin sensitivity in obese humans, and mutation of FSP27 inhumans leads to increased lipolysis. In addition, adipose-specificdisruption of FSP27 causes insulin resistance in high fat fed mice.

Described herein is a previously unrecognized role of FSP27 in theregulation of insulin signaling to protect against insulin resistanceand Type 2 diabetes. While metabolic regulation of FSP27 has beenessentially characterized exclusively in adipocytes, the data hereinshow that FPS27 is down-regulated particularly in association withvisceral/central obesity. Perturbations in FSP27 may promote conditionsthat elevate FFAs, which cause or promote insulin resistance. However,lipid storage/breakdown is generally not viewed as a primary function ofother cell types, thus FSP27 may govern cellular responses by mechanismsbeyond regulation of lipid metabolism.

Moreover, at the local adipose tissue level, capillary rarefaction andimpaired perfusion have been linked to adipose tissue pseudohypoxia andmetabolic dysregulation. FSP27 is down-regulated in human visceral fatand is associated with insulin resistance.

Also described herein are mouse models that are adipose specifictransgenic mice expressing human FSP27. These mice are useful to examinethe relative contribution of adipose in regulating insulin resistanceand/or Type 2 diabetes.

FS-IVGTT

Fasting subjects are studied in the morning in the general clinicalresearch center (GCRC). Any oral diabetic medication is held 48 hrsprior to testing. Two intravenous forearm catheters are placed in eacharm (one for sampling and one for infusion). Baseline blood samples arecollected at t= -15 min and t=-5 min) for measurement of glucose andinsulin. A bolus of 300 mg/kg glucose in 25% glucose/saline infusionover 1 minute is given. At t=20 min, a bolus of 0.05 units/kg of regularinsulin intravenously which improves accuracy of the FS-IVGTT indiabetic subjects is given. Blood is collected for insulin and glucoseat t=2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, 16, 19, 22, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 90,110, 130, 150, 170, and 180 minutes. The insulin sensitivity index (SI)and disposition index (DI) are calculated using the MINMOD softwarebased on the Bergman model. These data collected within 1 week of theplanned surgery.

Quantitative Real-Ttime PCR and Western Blot Analyses

Using Quantitative real-time PCR, fat tissue expression of specificmediators relevant to insulin signaling, FSP27, and inflammation (whichwill initially consist of: TNFα, IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1, CD68, FSP27, IRS-1,PI3-K, Akt, PTEN) are examined.

FSP27 is associated with lipid droplets and functions primarily as aregulator of lipid droplet morphology and lipolysis in adipocytes.Visceral adipose tissue showed lower FSP27 expression as compared tosubcutaneous depots (see FIGS. 9A-9B).

FSP27 Prevents the Interaction of ATGL with its Activator, CGI-58,Leading to a Decreased Lipolysis in Human Adipocytes

Lipolysis of TGs to FAs and glycerol requires three consecutive stepsthat involve three different enzymes, Adipose tissue glycerol lipase(ATGL; also called desnutrin and PNPLA2), Hormone sensitive lipase(HSL), and Monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL). ATGL is the rate-limitingenzyme for lipolysis in adipocytes which catalyzes the first step ofhydrolysis of TG to diacyl glycerol (DG).

FSP27 regulates lipolysis in adipocytes through regulation of thecatalytic capacity as well as transcription of the adipose tissueglycerol lipase (ATGL) gene. The activity of ATGL depends upon itsinteraction with its activator CGI-58. As shown in FIGS. 1A-1D, FSP27interacts with ATGL at lipid droplet surface and inhibits itsinteraction with the activator CGI-58, thus preventing the activation ofATGL to regulate lipolysis under both basal and stimulated conditions.

FIGS. 1A-1Dprovide a schematic illustration of a model of FSP27regulation of lipolysis. FIG. 1A illustrates that, in basal conditions,FSP27 decreases the access of ATGL to its coactivator CGI-58, therebydiminishing lipolysis, as indicated by the dashed downward arrow.

FIG. 1B illustrates that, when FSP27 is absent in basal conditions, ATGLis free to interact with CGI-58, leading to increased lipolysis, asindicated by solid downward arrow.

FIG. 1C illustrates that, upon β-adrenergic stimulation in the presenceof FSP27, PKA activation results in phosphorylation of PLIN1 and HSL,causing release of CGI-58, which binds to and stimulates ATGL. UnboundATGL is translocated to lipid droplet and G0S2 is downregulated toincrease ATGL-mediated lipolysis as indicated by the bolded downwardarrow.

FIG. 1D illustrates that, upon β-adrenergic stimulation in the absenceof FSP27, the otherwise FSP27-sequestered-ATGL is now available forCGI-58 binding, resulting in even higher levels of lipolysis, indicatedby the more prominent downward arrow.

In addition to inhibiting the access of ATGL to CGI-58, it is nowbelieved that FSP27 affects ATGL-mediated lipolysis in adipocytes by: a)regulating hydrolase activity of ATGL, b) regulating expression anddistribution of G0S2, and/or c) that FSP27 depletion causesfragmentation of lipid droplets which increases the surface area oflipid droplets, thus increasing the access of lipases.

The effect of FSP27 on TG hydrolase activity of ATGL is determined bythe following protocol: HeLa cells stably expressing or non-expressingFSP27 are transfected with ATGL and CGI-58. The cell homogenates areincubated with ³H-labeled triolein as substrate and its hydrolysis ismeasured. As described in FIGS. 1A-1D, G0/S1 switch gene, G0S2,regulates ATGL-mediated lipolysis via inhibiting its TG hydrolaseactivity. The distribution of G0S2 is mostly cytosolic but understimulated conditions a small percentage of it distributes to LDs.Therefore, the effect of expression of FSP27 or its functional domain(s)on the expression and distribution of G0S2 under both basal and/orstimulated conditions in human adipocytes is examined.

FSP27 Depletion Increased Both Basal and Stimulated Lipolysis in HumanAdipocytes

Non-specific scrambled (Scr) siRNA was used as a control in allexperiments. FIG. 2A shows the relative mRNA levels in siRNA-transfectedhuman adipocytes. FIG. 2B shows the immunoblot and quantification ofprotein expression levels of FSP27 and β-tubulin (loading control) ofsiRNA-transfected human adipocytes. FIG. 2C shows the biochemicalquantification of basal and stimulated lipolysis based on measurement ofglycerol release after 2 hours. Values are means ± standard error;*p<0.05 and **p<0.001, n=3 (unpaired t-test).

FSP27 Expression Decreased ATGL-Mediated Lipolysis

FIG. 3 shows glycerol released in cell culture media from humanadipocytes expressing EGFP, FSP27-HA and/or ATGL. Control cells wereinfected with EGFP-containing empty virus. Glycerol released in 2.5 hwas measured and normalized to total protein. Values are means ±standard error; *p<0.001 and **p<0.05, n=3 (unpaired t-test).

FSP27 Negatively Regulates ATGL Expression and Lipolysis in HumanAdipocytes

Human adipocytes were cultured and differentiated. FIG. 4A shows whereRNA was extracted from control and siRNA-treated adipocytes, and mRNAlevels were measured by quantiative PCR and normalized by GAPDH mRNA.The data show an average of three independent experiments. FIG. 4B showsprotein lysates from control and siRNA-treated adipocytes were loaded at15 µg/lane and probed with antibodies against FSP27, ATGL or β-tubulin.Image is representative of at least three independent experiments.

FSP27 Inhibits ATGL Gene Transcription (Promoter/Enhancer) Activity viaEgr1

FIGS. 5A, 5B, 5D, 5F, and 5G show where HEK293T cells cultured in12-well dishes were transfected with the full length (-2979/+21), C→Tmutated, or truncated ATGL luciferase promoter constructs, cDNA foreGFP; cDNAs for FSP27 and Egr1 as well as scrambled siRNA and Egr1 siRNAas indicated. After 48 h, cells were washed three times in cold PBS andharvested in the reporter lysis buffer. Luciferase activity in celllysates was assayed and normalized by eGFP fluorescence. Data arepresented for triplicate samples as mean±SD; *p<0.05 as estimated byunpaired t-test.

FIG. 5D shows the synergistic effect between Egr1 and FSP27 with p<0.05.Experiments were repeated at least 3 times (FIGS. 5A, 5B, 5D, 5G) and 2times (FIG. 5F).

FIG. 5C is a schematic representation of the proximal region of ATGLpromoter with the consensus Egr1 binding site. Nucleotides that havebeen chosen for the site-directed mutagenesis are underlined.

FIG. 5E shows HEK293T cells growing in 35 mm dishes were transfectedwith scrambled or Egr1 siRNA. Cell lysates were collected 48 hpost-transfection, separated by 12.5% PAGE and immunoblotted with Egr1and actin antibodies. The experiment was repeated at least 2 times.

FSP27 Protected Human Adipocytes Against FFA-Induced Insulin Resistance

FIG. 6A shows where insulin stimulated AKT phosphorylation in humanadipocytes after siRNA-mediated FSP27 knockdown. FIG. 6B shows insulinstimulated AKT phosphorylation in human adipocytes after overnighttreatment with 100 µM PA/BSA in the presence or absence of FSP27-CFP orEGFP (Control). FIG. 6C shows FSP27-HA expression protects adipocytesdifferentiated from WT mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) against 100 µMPA/BSA-mediated inhibition of insulin stimulated AKT phosphorylation.FIG. 6D shows 100 µM PA/BSA or FSP27-HA expression had no effect oninsulin stimulated AKT activation in adipocytes differentiated fromATGL-KO MEFs.

FFAs Impairs Insulin Signaling and Promotes Insulin Resistance in HumanPrimary Adipocytes

FSP27 depletion in human adipocytes increased ATGL expression andlipolysis and hence increased FFA levels, and it was determined whetherFSP27 depletion affects insulin induced signaling. Indeed, FSP27knockdown decreased insulin-mediated stimulation of AKT phosphorylation(FIG. 6A). Also, FSP27 overexpression protected human adipocytes againstFFA-induced insulin resistance (FIG. 6B).

Furthermore, adipocytes derived from ATGL-KO MEFs but not WT wereresistant to FFA-induced insulin resistance (FIG. 6C and FIG. 6D).

FIG. 7 shows that basal lipolysis was significantly higher in visceraldepots compared to subcutaneous. Glycerol release was measured in 12subcutaneous, 15 omentum adipose depots and normalized to total µg ofprotein. Data are presented as ± SEM.

Increased Lipolysis in Visceral Adipose Negatively Correlates With FSP27Expression

FIG. 8A shows that basal FSP27 was significantly higher in subcutaneousdepot. FSP27 mRNA was measured in 27 paired samples from subcutaneousand omentum depots. Data are presented as ± SEM. FIG. 8B shows basalFSP27 protein was measured in 13 paired subcutaneous, omentum depots.Data are presented as ± SEM.

Effect of FSP27 Depletion on Insulin Signaling in Adipocytes

Akt activation is regulated by PIP3, and PIP3 levels are tightlyregulated by phosphatidylinositol (PI)-3K and phosphatases, such asPTEN, which antagonizes PI3K/Akt signaling by dephosphorylating PIP3.The phosphorylation of PTEN is measured at Ser³⁸⁰/Thr³⁸²/Thr³⁸³. Also,the phosphorylation of IRS-1 and AS160 is measured and compared with theexpression of FSP27.

FSP27 expression was lower in visceral adipose depot of a cohort ofobese human subjects, as shown in FIGS. 8A-8B. The phosphorylation ofIRS-1 and AS160 is measured in both visceral and subcutaneous adiposetissue of obese human subjects and compared with FSP27 expression

FIGS. 9A-9B show that siRNA-mediated FSP27 knockdown increases lipolysisand impairs insulin signaling. FIG. 9A shows knockdown of FSP27 insubcutaneous adipose tissue increased rate of glycerol release in themedia. Data are presented as ± SEM (n=7). FIG. 9B shows siRNA-mediatedFSP27 depletion decreased Akt phosphorylation.

The involvement of activated JNK and p38 stress pathways inFSP27-depleted inhibition of Akt in adipocytes and muscle and livercells. FSP27 depletion increases lipolysis and FFA release in humanadipocytes. Since FFAs increase ceramide content, which has been shownto activate MLK3, the upstream kinase of JNK and p38 pathways, theactivation of these pathways. JNK and p38 are activated byphosphorylation at Thr¹⁸³/Tyr¹⁸⁵ and Thr¹⁸⁰/Tyr¹⁸², respectively, FSP27depletion increases lipolysis and FFA release in human adipocytes. SinceFFAs increase ceramide which activates MLK3, an upstream kinase for JNKand p38. Phosphorylation of JNK and p38 by MLK3 at Thr¹⁸³/Tyr¹⁸⁵ andThr¹⁸⁰/Tyr¹⁸², respectively, causes downregulation of insulin receptorsignaling in adipose, muscle and liver cells to promote insulinresistance.)

Recombinant FSP27 Improves Insulin Signaling in Visceral Adipose

FIG. 10A shows the treatment of visceral depot with recombinant FSP27decreased basal lipolysis. FIG. 10B shows the quantification ofinsulin-stimulated AKT phosphorylation. Data are presented as ± SEM.*p<0.05.

FSP27 (120-220) Protects Against FFA-Induced Insulin Resistance in HumanAdipocytes

Insulin stimulated AKT phosphorylation in human adipocytes. The coreFSP27 domain that is associated with TG accumulation, aa 120-220, wasexpressed using lentivirus, with EGFP as a control. The cells weretreated overnight with 100 µM PA/BSA. The blots in FIG. 11 show AKTphosphorylation in basal and insulin stimulated conditions. FSP27(120-220) protected human adipocytes from inhibition of AKTphosphorylation by exogenous PA.

FIG. 12 shows the schematic representation of FSP27 and its functionaldomains: CIDE-N terminal domain and CIDE-C terminal domain. TheN-terminus of FSP27 is from amino acids 1-120 and the C-terminus is fromamino acids 121-239. FSP27-mediated enlargement of lipid droplets (LDs)consists of two independent steps, clustering followed by fusion of LDs.Amino acids 172-210 are necessary and sufficient for FSP27-mediatedclustering of LDs. The clustering of LDs has no effect on their size andcellular TG levels. The LD clustering is followed by their enlargement.Amino acids 120-210 are sufficient for clustering and enlargement ofLDs.

FIG. 13 shows that the FSP27 sequence is conserved in vertebrates; forexample, > 90% conserved sequence in FSP27 in humans, mouse, monkey,dog, cow and frog.

Generation of Adipose Specific Human FSP27-Overexpressing TransgenicMice

FSP27-mediated suppression of lipolysis in adipose tissue can protectfrom insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes.

FSP27 was cloned in ROSA26-CMV-loxSTOPlox vector and mice generatedconditionally over-express FSP27. These mice are crossed with Adipoq-cremice to specifically over-express FSP27 in adipose tissue (AT),(AT-FSP27tg). Based upon the data shown in FIGS. 6A-6D, a 2-3 foldincrease in FSP27 expression in WAT it is now believed to be sufficientto provide a protective effect of FSP27 against high Fat Diet(HFD)-induced insulin resistance.

In order to determine whether overexpressing FSP27 also alters otherproteins associated with lipid droplet protection and lipolysis, PLIN1,ATGL and HSL protein and/or phosphorylation are analyzed under basal andstimulated states; then followed with identifying any alterations inadipocyte lipolysis. Fat deposition and lipid metabolites in muscle andliver are measured in the experimental animals. To estimateintracellular pools of FSP27, lipid droplet pools of FSP27 are isolatedand quantified. The amount of FSP27 is expressed relative to the numberand/or surface area of adipocytes.

Glucose Homeostasis and Metabolic Phenotyping

The littermates are subjected to physiological characterization at 6, 12and 26 weeks. Body weights and body composition are measured by MagneticResonance Imaging. Under both fed and fasted conditions, level ofcirculating, glucose, insulin, FFA, glycerol, GH, IGF-1 and adipokines(leptin, reisistin, and adiponectin) are determined with commerciallyavailable ELISA or enzymatic kits. Intraperitoneal glucose tolerancetesting (GTT) (2 g/kg body weight), and intraperitoneal insulintolerance test (ITT) (0.75-1.25 U/kg body weight) are assessed. Separatecohorts of mice are placed on either a low (10%) or high (60%) fat diet(HFD) (D12450B and D12492, Research Diets) for 12 wks and studied in asimilar manner. Changes in metabolic rate and energy expenditure aremeasured by the Comprehensive Lab Animal Monitoring System (CLAMS,Columbus Instrument). Mice are acclimated for 24 h then monitored for a48 h fed period followed by a 24 h fasted period. Activity (determinedby infrared beam breaks), food intake, energy expenditure (normalized tolean body mass) and heat production are also measured. Respiratoryexchange ratio (RER) (VCO2/VO2) is calculated from the gas exchange datafor light and dark phases. After completion of the physiologicalassessment, mice are sacrificed. Blood, skeletal muscles (quadriceps,EDL, and tibialis anterior), liver, heart, kidney, subcutaneous (SC),perigonaldal (PG), and brown fat depots, brain, and pancreas and/orisolated islets are collected and weighed. Tissues are prepared forhistology and mRNA and protein is extracted for further analysis.

Insulin Signaling, Glucose Uptake, and Lipolysis

Results from the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp and ITT are confirmedby assessing insulin signaling in insulin sensitive tissues, includingthe adipose tissue (AT), muscle, and liver. Fifteen minutes afterintravenous injection of insulin, tissues are isolated and insulinsignaling intermediates (e.g. IR, IRS1, Akt, PI3K, and mTORC1 and, whererelevant, their phosphorylated counterparts) are assayed by western blotanalysis. For measurements of glucose uptake and lipolysis from primaryadipocytes, fat pads are enzymatically digested. Lipolytic rate isquantified by glycerol and FA release, and glucose uptake is determinedby uptake of [³H] 2-Deoxy-D-glucose. Since adipocyte size is believed tovary in these mouse models, we will quantify lipolysis “per adipocyte”and “per unit adipocyte surface area” are quantified.

Histology of Adipose Tissue, Ectopic Lipid and Cytokine Quantitation

AT histology is conducted to examine the adipocyte morphology andmacrophage infiltration. Adipocyte size and macrophage infiltration arequantified. Ectopic fat deposition in muscle and liver is visualized byhistology and triacylglycerol, diacylglycerol, and ceramides arequantified. The circulating levels and mRNA expression ofpro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1β, TNFα, IL6) are determined, as FFAshave been shown to modulate macrophage activation and the expression ofpro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, TNFα has been shown to increaselipolysis in a FSP27 dependent manner.

Protected Insulin and Glucose Response in High-Fat Fed AdiposeTissue-Specific Human-FSP27 Transgenic Mice (AT-hFSP27tg)

FIG. 14A shows insulin tolerance test (ITT), while FIG. 14B showsglucose tolerance test (GTT) in AT-hFSP27tg mice. Males (5-month-old,n=3/group) were fed a 60% HF for 3 months. Data: mean ± SEM. Plots atthe bottom of the curves show area under the curves. These data showthat overexpressing FSP27 in adipocytes prevents diet-induced insulinresistance.

FSP27 Knockout (FSP27^(-/-)) are Glucose and Insulin Intolerant

FIG. 15A shows glucose tolerance test (GTT), while FIG. 15B showsinsulin tolerance test (ITT) in FSP27^(-/-) mice. Males (4 month-old;n=3/group) Data: mean±SEM; p<0.05 in Fsp27^(-/-)vs Wild type (WT) mice.Plots at the bottom of the curves show area under the curves.

Plasma Insulin and NEFA in FSP27^(-/-) Mice on a Regular Diet (RD)

Fasting blood insulin and non-esterified fatty acid (Free fatty acids)levels were higher in FSP27 knockout mice, as shown in FIG. 16A and FIG.16B.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

A pharmaceutical composition as described herein may be formulated withany pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, diluents, or carriers. Acomposition disclosed herein may comprise different types of carriersdepending on whether it is to be administered in solid, liquid, oraerosol form, and whether it needs to be sterile for such routes ofadministration as injection. Compositions disclosed herein can beadministered in a suitable manner, including, but not limited totopically (i.e., transdermal), subcutaneously, by localized perfusionbathing target cells directly, via a lavage, in creams, in lipidcompositions (e.g., liposomes), formulated as elixirs or solutions forconvenient topical administration, formulated as sustained releasedosage forms, or by other method or any combination of the forgoing aswould be known to one of ordinary skill in the art (see, for example,Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2003, incorporated herein byreference).

The compositions provided herein are useful for treating animals, suchas humans. A method of treating a human patient according to the presentdisclosure includes the administration of a composition, as describedherein.

The phrases “pharmaceutical” or “pharmacologically acceptable” refer tomolecular entities and compositions that produce no adverse, allergic,or other untoward reaction when administered to an animal, such as, forexample, a human. A carrier or diluent may be a solid, semi-solid, orliquid material which serves as a vehicle, excipient, or medium for theactive therapeutic substance. Some examples of the diluents or carrierswhich may be employed in the pharmaceutical compositions of the presentdisclosure are lactose, dextrose, sucrose, sorbitol, mannitol, propyleneglycol, liquid paraffin, white soft paraffin, kaolin, fumed silicondioxide, microcrystalline cellulose, calcium silicate, silica,polyvinylpyrrolidone, cetostearyl alcohol, starch, modified starches,gum acacia, calcium phosphate, cocoa butter, ethoxylated esters, oil oftheobroma, arachis oil, alginates, tragacanth, gelatin, syrup, methylcellulose, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, ethyl lactate, methyland propyl hydroxybenzoate, sorbitan trioleate, sorbitan sesquioleateand oleyl alcohol, and propellants such as trichloromonofluoromethane,dichlorodifluoromethane, and dichlorotetrafluoroethane.

Solutions of the compositions disclosed herein as free bases orpharmacologically acceptable salts may be prepared in water suitablymixed with a surfactant, such as hydroxypropylcellulose. Dispersions mayalso be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols, and mixturesthereof, and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use,these preparations contain a preservative to prevent the growth ofmicroorganisms. The pharmaceutical forms suitable for use includesterile aqueous solutions or dispersions and sterile powders for theextemporaneous preparation of sterile solutions or dispersions. Incertain cases the form should be sterile and should be fluid to theextent that easy injectability exists. It should be stable under theconditions of manufacture and storage and may optionally be preservedagainst the contaminating action of microorganisms, such as bacteria andfungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, forexample, water, ethanol, a polyol (i.e., glycerol, propylene glycol, andliquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), suitable mixtures thereof,and/or vegetable oils. The prevention of the action of microorganismscan be brought about by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, forexample, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, sorbic acid, thimerosal, andthe like. In many cases, it may be preferable to include isotonicagents, such as, but not limited to, sugars or sodium chloride.

Pharmaceutical compositions for topical administration may include thecompositions formulated for a medicated application such as an ointment,paste, cream, or powder. Ointments include all oleaginous, adsorption,emulsion, and water-soluble based compositions for topical application,while creams and lotions are those compositions that include an emulsionbase only. Topically administered medications may contain a penetrationenhancer to facilitate adsorption of the active ingredients through theskin. Suitable penetration enhancers include glycerin, alcohols, alkylmethyl sulfoxides, pyrrolidones and luarocapram. Possible bases forcompositions for topical application include polyethylene glycol,lanolin, cold cream, and petrolatum as well as any other suitableabsorption, emulsion, or water-soluble ointment base. Topicalpreparations may also include emulsifiers, gelling agents, andantimicrobial preservatives as necessary to preserve the composition andprovide for a homogenous mixture. Transdermal administration of thecompositions may also comprise the use of a “patch.” For example, thepatch may supply one or more compositions at a predetermined rate and ina continuous manner over a fixed period of time.

It is further envisioned the compositions disclosed herein may bedelivered via an aerosol. The term aerosol refers to a colloidal systemof finely divided solid or liquid particles dispersed in a liquefied orpressurized gas propellant. The typical aerosol comprises a suspensionof active ingredients in liquid propellant or a mixture of liquidpropellant and a suitable solvent. Suitable propellants includehydrocarbons and hydrocarbon ethers. Suitable containers can varyaccording to the pressure requirements of the propellant. Administrationof the aerosol can vary according to subject’s age, weight, and theseverity and response of the symptoms.

Dosage

The actual dosage amount of a composition disclosed herein administeredto an animal or human patient can be determined by physical andphysiological factors such as body weight, severity of condition, thetype of disease being treated, previous or concurrent therapeuticinterventions, idiopathy of the patient, and the route ofadministration. Depending upon the dosage and the route ofadministration, the number of administrations of a preferred dosageand/or an effective amount may vary according to the response of thesubject. The compounds of the present disclosure are generally effectiveover a wide dosage range. The practitioner responsible foradministration can, in any event, determine the concentration of activeingredient(s) in a composition and appropriate dose(s) for theindividual subject.

Naturally, the amount of active compound(s) in each therapeuticallyuseful composition may be prepared in such a way that a suitable dosagecan be obtained in any given unit dose of the compound. Factors such assolubility, bioavailability, biological half-life, route ofadministration, product shelf life, as well as other pharmacologicalconsiderations can be contemplated by those preparing suchpharmaceutical formulations, and as such, a variety of dosages andtreatment regimens may be desirable.

In other non-limiting examples, a dose may also comprise from about 1microgram/kg/body weight, about 5 microgram/kg/body weight, about 10microgram/kg/body weight, about 50 microgram/kg/body weight, about 100microgram/kg/body weight, about 200 microgram/kg/body weight, about 350microgram/kg/body weight, about 500 microgram/kg/body weight, about 1milligram/kg/body weight, about 5 milligram/kg/body weight, about 10milligram/kg/body weight, about 50 milligram/kg/body weight, about 100milligram/kg/body weight, about 200 milligram/kg/body weight, about 350milligram/kg/body weight, about 500 milligram/kg/body weight, to about1000 mg/kg/body weight or more per administration, and any rangederivable therein. In non-limiting examples of a derivable range fromthe numbers listed herein, a range of about 5 mg/kg/body weight to about100 mg/kg/body weight, about 5 microgram/kg/body weight to about 500milligram/kg/body weight, etc., can be administered, based on thenumbers described above. The dosages can depend on many factors, and canin any event be determined by a suitable practitioner. Therefore, thedosages described herein are not intended to be limiting

In some embodiments, the compositions further include an additionalactive ingredient. The preparation of a pharmaceutical composition thatcontains at least one compound or additional active ingredient can beknown to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure,as exemplified by Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2003,incorporated herein by reference. Moreover, for animal (e.g., human)administration, it can be understood that preparations should meetsterility, pyrogenicity, and general safety and purity standards asrequired by the FDA Office of Biological Standards.

Packaging of the Composition

After formulation, the composition is packaged in a manner suitable fordelivery and use by an end user. In one embodiment, the composition isplaced into an appropriate dispenser and shipped to the end user.Examples of final container may include a pump bottle, squeeze bottle,jar, tube, capsule or vial.

The compositions and methods described herein can be embodied as partsof a kit or kits. A non-limiting example of such a kit comprises theingredients for preparing a composition, where the containers may or maynot be present in a combined configuration. In certain embodiments, thekits further comprise a means for administering the composition, such asa topical applicator, or a syringe. The kits may further includeinstructions for using the components of the kit to practice the subjectmethods. The instructions for practicing the subject methods aregenerally recorded on a suitable recording medium. For example, theinstructions may be present in the kits as a package insert or in thelabeling of the container of the kit or components thereof. In otherembodiments, the instructions are present as an electronic storage datafile present on a suitable computer readable storage medium, such as aflash drive, CD-ROM, or diskette. In other embodiments, the actualinstructions are not present in the kit, but means for obtaining theinstructions from a remote source, such as via the internet, areprovided. An example of this embodiment is a kit that includes a webaddress where the instructions can be viewed and/or from which theinstructions can be downloaded. As with the instructions, this means forobtaining the instructions is recorded on a suitable substrate.

While the invention has been described with reference to various andpreferred embodiments, it should be understood by those skilled in theart that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substitutedfor elements thereof without departing from the essential scope of theinvention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt aparticular situation or material to the teachings of the inventionwithout departing from the essential scope thereof.

Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to theparticular embodiment disclosed herein contemplated for carrying outthis invention, but that the invention will include all embodimentsfalling within the scope of the claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for treating a subject suffering from ametabolic disease or other diseases associated with one or more ofincreased free fatty acids or lipotoxicity, the method comprising:directly administering to adipose fat cells and tissues of the subjectin need thereof, a recombinant peptide comprising a fat specific protein27 (FSP27), in an amount sufficient to decrease lipolysis in the adiposefat cells and tissue without the need for gene delivery mechanisms. 2.The method according to claim 1, wherein the recombinant peptidecomprises at least one of: SEQ ID NOs: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or the 120-220 aaof SEQ ID NO:
 2. 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein therecombinant peptide decreases the expression and enzymatic activity ofadipose tissue glycerol lipase (ATGL).
 4. The method according to claim1, wherein the recombinant peptide regulates lipid droplet morphology.5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the metabolic disease andconditions associated with the disease are selected from a groupconsisting of one or more of: insulin resistance, obesity, inflammation,and dyslipidemia.
 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the otherdiseases associated with increased free fatty acids or lipotoxicity, andconditions associated with these diseases are selected from a groupconsisting of one or more of: Type 2 diabetes, fatty liver disease,hypothyroidism, gout, hernia, Pickwickian syndrome, lymph edema,cellulitis, depression, polycystic ovary syndrome, urinary incontinence,chronic renal failure and erectile dysfunction.
 7. The method of claim1, wherein the subject is a human.
 8. A method for reducing the amountof visceral adipose fat in a subject, the method comprising:administering to the subject in need thereof an effective amount arecombinant peptide comprising at least one of: SEQ ID NOs:3, 4, 5, 6,7, or the 120-220 aa of SEQ ID NO: 2; and, decreasing lipolysis in thevisceral adipose fat cells and tissue.
 9. The method of claim 8, whereinthe subject is a human.
 10. A pharmaceutical composition comprising anucleic acid encoding a FSP27 protein to a subject capable of promotingmodulation of lipolysis in adipocytes; wherein, the FSP27 protein has anamino acid sequence having greater than about 85% 90%, 95%, or 99%homology to at least one of the FSP27 sequences comprising SEQ ID NOs:2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 120-220 aa of SEQ ID NO: 2; or one or morepharmaceutically acceptable modifications thereof, optionally togetherwith one or more inert carriers and/or diluents,.
 11. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 10, formulated as a medicine for the preventionand/or treatment of one or more of: diabetes mellitus, impaired glucosetolerance, hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphatedehydrogenase deficiency, hyperinsulinism, impaired insulin production,impaired insulin sensitivity, metabolic syndrome, insulin resistancesyndrome, obesity, lipidoses, dyslipidemia, fatty liver, lipodistrophy,and inflammation.
 12. A method of treating a subject, the methodcomprising: administering a composition comprising a nucleic acidencoding a FSP27 protein to a subject capable of promoting modulation oflipolysis in adipocytes; wherein, the FSP27 protein has an amino acidsequence having greater than about 85% 90%, 95%, or 99% homology to atleast one of the FSP27 sequences comprising: SEQ ID NOS: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, or 120-220 aa of SEQ ID NO: 2; wherein the subject has a metabolicdisease associated with at least one of increased free fatty acids orlipotoxicity.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the FSP27 protein isnaturally occurring.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the FSP27protein is a recombinant protein.
 15. The method of claim 12, whereinthe FSP27 protein comprises a core FSP27 domain that is associated withTG accumulation.
 16. The method of claim 12, wherein the FSP27 proteincomprises a core FSP27 domain that is associated with TG accumulationand comprises aa 120-220 of SEQ ID NO:
 2. 17. The method of claim 12,wherein the subject is a human.
 18. The method of claim 12, wherein thenucleic acid encoding the FSP27 protein is operably linked to aconstitutive promoter/enhancer, an adipocyte-specific promoter, or aninducible promoter.
 19. The method of claim 12, wherein the compositioncomprises a plasmid, the plasmid comprising the nucleic acid encodingthe FSP27 protein operably linked to a promoter/enhancer.
 20. The methodof claim 12, wherein the composition comprises a viral vector, the viralvector comprising the nucleic acid encoding the FSP27 protein operablylinked to a promoter/enhancer.